• An objective reality exists independent of humans;

• Humans create social reality;

• Facts about social reality are inseparable from values;

• Biophysical and social realities are distinct but are

  interconnected;

• A hierarchical ontology is accepted in which there is an

  ordered structure (e.g. biophysical, social, economic);

• Societyandtheindividualaredistinctinthattheformercannot be reduced to the latter nor the latter merely aggregate to

  create the former;

• Complex systems and their interactions create emergent

  properties and are inherently unpredictable;

• Systems are continually subject to change and interaction.

  Epistemological Claims

  • Ourscientificknowledgeisalwayssubjecttostronguncertain- ty (i.e., partial ignorance, social indeterminacy);

  • We can never prove that we have discovered the truth in our scientific understanding;

  • Understanding and interpreting reality are in part social pro- cesses in which knowledge is often contested;

  • Knowledge comes in different forms and is not the exclusive domain of the expert; indigenous and lay knowledge may challenge or complement expert knowledge;

  • Knowledge is subject to reasoned critique and empirical investigation;

  • Critique can take a variety of forms leading to the need for plural methods;

  • Advancing knowledge requires accepting and rejecting infor- mation and being open to revising beliefs.

Splash, C.L. (2012). New foundations for ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 77, pp. 36–47.